Document Type : Research/Original/Regular Article

Authors

Abstract

Offset agreements are legal trade practices, common in the aerospace and military industries. The international names for these commercial practices are various: industrial compensations, industrial cooperation, offsets, industrial and regional benefits, balances and equilibrium. An offset agreement is an agreement between two parties whereby a supplier agrees to buy products from the party to whom it is selling, in order to win the buyer as a customer and offset the buyer's outlay. Generally the seller is a foreign company and the buyer is a government that stipulates that the seller must then agree to buy products from companies within their country. Indeed, industrial compensation practices required as a condition of purchase in either government-to-government or commercial sales of articles and/or services. Often, the aim of this process is to even-up a country's balance of trade. Although the offset agreement is so significant, it has been rarely known for inner academic associations; in this work, after brief introducing of the mechanism, variations and compensatory obligations of these contracts, we discuss about the structure of them and the tendency of their parties to bind independent contracts related to each other throughout a document called the protocol.

Keywords

-       شهیدی، مهدی، شروط ضمن عقد، چاپ اول، تهران، انتشارات مجد، 1386.
-       شیروی، عبدالحسین، «انواع روش‌های قراردادی تجارت متقابل»، اندیشه‌های حقوقی، شماره 7، 1383.
-       شیروی، عبدالحسین، حقوق تجارت بین‌الملل، چاپ دوم، تهران، انتشارات سمت، 1390.
-       کاتوزیان، ناصر، قواعد عمومی قراردادها، جلد 3، چاپ چهارم، تهران، شرکت سهامی انتشار با همکاری شرکت بهمن برنا، 1383.
-       کاتوزیان، ناصر، قواعد عمومی قراردادها، جلد 1، چاپ هفتم، تهران، انتشار با همکاری بهمن برنا، 1383.
-       کامیار، محمدرضا، گزیده آراء دیوان لاهه (دیوان داوری دعاوی ایران- آمریکا)، جلد 1، به اهتمام احمد مظفری و مهدی نیک‌فر، چاپ اول،  تهران، انتشارات ققنوس، 1378.
-       کامیار، محمدرضا، گزیده آراء دیوان لاهه (دیوان داوری دعاوی ایران- آمریکا)، جلد 2، به اهتمام احمد مظفری و مهدی نیک‌فر، چاپ اول، تهران، انتشارات ققنوس، 1379.
 
-       Al-Suwaidi, Ahmed, "Countertrade and the Arab World: Comparative View", Arab Law Quarterly, Vol. 8, No. 4, 1993.
-       Amara, Jomana and Petr Pargac, , "Offsets and Defense Procurement in the Czech Republic: a Case Study", Naval Postgraduate School, Defense Resources Management Institute, 2009/8  available at: http://www.nps.edu/Academics/Centers/DRMI/docs/DRMI%20Working%20Paper%2009-08.pdf.
-       Brauer, J. and J.P. Dunne (eds.), Arms Trade and Economic Development: Theory, Policy, and Cases in Arms Trade Offsets, London,  Routledge, 2004.
-       Bureau of Industry and Security, Offsets in Defense Trade, U.S Department of Commerce, BIS Annual Report to Congress, Sixth Study, December 2001, available at: http://www.bis.doc.gov/defenseindustrialbaseprograms/osies/offsets/01rept.pdf.
-       Cohen, S., and J. Zysman, "Counter-trade, Offsets, and Buybacks", California Management Review, Vol. 28, 1991.
-       Duval, Claude, "Regulatory and Contractual Aspects of a Countertrade Agreement", in: “Countertrade: Offset Contracts”, International Chamber of Commerce, N.440/7(E), ICC PUBLSHING S.A., 1989
-       Francis, Dick, The Countertrade Handbook, Cambridge, New York: Quorum Books, 1987.
-       General Accounting Office, U.S Contractors Employ Diverse Activities to Meet Offset Obligations, GAO/NSIAD-99-35, December 1998.
-       Hammond, Grant T., "Countertrade, Offsets, and Barter in International Economy", Cengage Learning, London, 1990.
-       Hiscock, Koh, and D. Allan, "Countertrade: The problem of Linkage", in International Chamber of Commerce, “Countertrade: Offset Contracts”, N.440/7(E), ICC PUBLSHING S.A., 1989
-       Jones, William E, The Value of Military Industrial Offset, the DISAM journal, winter 2001-2002h.
-       Mann, Paul, "Global Arms Exports Continue Decline", Aviation Week & Space Technology, May 18, 1998.
-       Martin, Stephen, Economics of Offsets: Defense Procurement and Countertrade, Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers, 1996.
-       Murat, Sumer and Jason Chuah, "Emerging Legal Challenges for Countertrade Techniques", in: International Trade, Int.T.L.R, 2007.
-       Plottier, Sandra, "Technology Transfer And offset Operation", in: Countertrade and Offset, International Chamber of Commerce, N.440/7(E), ICC PUBLSHING S.A., 1989.
-       Rajski, J, "Some Legal Aspect of International Compensation Trade", the International and Comparative Law Quarterly, Vol. 35, No.1. 1986.
-       Rubin, Steven M., "The Business Managers Guide to Barter, Offset and Countertrade", Special Report NO.243, (to the economist Intelligence Unit), The Economist Publications Ltd., 1986.
-       Russin, Richard J., "Offsets in International Military Procurement", the DISAM Journal, summer 1995.
-         Skӧns, Elizabeth, "Evaluating Defense Offsets: the Experience in Finland and Sweden", in: Brauer, J. and J.P.Dunne (eds.), Arms Trade and Economic Development: Theory, Policy, and Cases in Arms Trade Offsets, London,  Routledge, 2004.
-       Söls, Alberto, "Logistics and Industrial Co-Operation (Offsets): the Perfect Link", Logistics, Spectrum, Vol. 34, No. 3, 2000.
-       Udis, B.,  and K.E. Maskus, "Offsets as Industrial Policy: Lessons from Aerospace", Defense Economics, Vol. 2, No.2, 1991.
-       Verzariu, Pompiliu, Countertrade, Barter, and Offsets, McGraw Hill, 1985.
-       Welt, Leo, the Offsetting Factor, Defense & Foreign Affairs, December, 1985.
-       Wilson, Dennis, "Balancing efficiency with Equity in Foreign Defense Acquisitions", Naval War Colledge Review, Vol. XLVIII, No.2, spring 1995.